Wisconsins Labor Unions

Introduction Many state employees including teachers and government employees are protesting against a proposed legislation that seeks to curtail the collective bargaining rights of workers unions. They are also opposed to a move spearheaded by the Republican Governor, Scott Walker of raising employee’s contribution towards the pension scheme from 0.2 percent to 6 percent and increasing the health insurance contribution from 6% to 12%.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Wisconsin’s Labor Unions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Proponents of the proposed legislation, including Walker, support it as the best effort to solve the current economic crisis and avoid layoffs of public employees. The bill has the support of Republican lawmakers who have the numbers in both the state Assembly and the Senate to pass it. Once passed, the legislation will demand that the unions’ employees pay will be line wi th the guidelines of Consumer Price Index. The efforts of the protesters to stop the legislation from becoming law through labor unions represent a clear example of Marxist theory. The protesters want to avoid exploitation by protecting their collective bargaining rights. The Marxist concept of surplus value outlines how a capitalist economy exploits state employees. According to this theory, state employees can avoid exploitation through forming workers union that gives them effective bargaining rights since labor is the generator of value. Labor Theory of Value Karl Marx formulated the concept of surplus value to refer to the unpaid surplus labor claimed by enterprises as gross profit (Hollander 78). Marxist idea implies that capitalist states exploit state employees. He argues that the commodity value is derived from the labor value. The surplus labor reinvestment generates more wealth resulting to huge gross profits and thus, Marx concludes, capitalist states engage in business for profits. Marx argues that the accumulation of wealth in the 19th century by capitalist economies was because of competitive efforts to get the highest surplus value from the labor. This implies that capitalists were exploiting the workers on a massive scale leading to large-scale amassment of wealth by these states. Marxism holds that every person is justified in maintaining the fruits of his/her labor. However, he argues that the worker receives only the portion of labor that is basic for life while the remainder i.e. the surplus produce constitutes the profits accrued by capitalist enterprises. Marxist’s idea of surplus value led to the labor union programs to protect the rights of the workers from the perceived exploitation by capitalist states. Sociological Concepts Various social concepts explain the form of modern social and economic organizations in the world (Dillon 45). Disenchantment capitalism involves private ownerships of the markets, allocation of the resour ces and distribution of goods. The concept arose during the industrial revolution of the 16th century and enabled countries to exploit new colonies.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The new system led to an increase in the level of trade both domestic and multilateral trade between a state and its colonies. This amounted to exploitation of the colonies and the accumulation of wealth by the rich countries. The non-rewarding labor in the colonies necessitated uprisings against foreign governance. The sociological concept underscores the need of people coming together to push for common goals. For instance, workers working in a given organization might team to push for better payment. Better payment here plays as the denominator of these workers staying together for they pursue similar goals and objectives. Workers of an organization bond together through workers union so that t hey are enough force to make demands pertaining to their work conditions. In mechanical solidarity, the people feel connected based on mutual interests for a certain course. The mass protest of workers in Wisconsin shows that they are united by a common goal. The workers unions act as an umbrella body, which unites these workers and provides bargaining rights for them. Sociability involves the social interactions for different purposes not on personal purposes. People enter into any form of sociability with personal capacities, attractions, and interests with an objective purpose in mind (Dillon 47).The workers get into unions for personal and subjective gains. In sociability, the members are equal and are therefore democratic in nature. Sociability influences major decisions in the lives of the people. The sociological concept of world life focuses on a situation in which the world is experienced or lived. World life sociological concept provides the background environment that is responsible for an individual’s practices and attitudes. Wisconsin has had a history of passing regulations that promote the rights of workers like the collective bargaining legislation passed in 1959 that gave rise to a union that covers public employees. Therefore, the proposal to limit the effectiveness of the workers union faces opposition through mass protests. Conclusion The workers union offers an opportunity for the workers to have bargaining rights with the state. Marx’s theory of surplus labor led to the rise of workers union. However, unions based on various sociological concepts that shape their response towards any measures that will eliminate these unions unite people as seen by the protests in Wisconsin over the proposal to limit the role of workers unions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Wisconsin’s Labor Unions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Dillon, Michele. In troduction to Sociological Theory: Theorists, Concepts, and their  Applicability to the Twenty-First Century. West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 2009. Hollander, Paul. The many Faces of Socialism: Comparative Sociology and  Politics. California: ICON group International, 2009. This essay on Wisconsin’s Labor Unions was written and submitted by user Cooper Hurley to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The characteristics of organizational knowledge

The characteristics of organizational knowledge Introduction In the study of management, business and organizational studies, many authors and scholars concur that there is a strong connection between effective management of the intellectual assets of an organization and continuous progress in performance.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The characteristics of organizational knowledge specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is to say that knowledge management has become an essential requirement for management of organizations, which guarantees successful performance. Above all these important components, it has been agreed that knowledge itself is vital and incomparable. As a result, business organizations can derive value from the type and location of their knowledge resources by investing in creative knowledge management techniques. In its broadness, knowledge can be described as the driving force behind societal, personal and organizational behavior (Campos S anchez 2003). Notably, there are two knowledge-related aspects, which are essential for the feasibility and excellent performance of any business organization. The first aspect concerns knowledge assets, which is also known as intellectual assets. This generally refers to priceless knowledge that is readily available for use by individuals or by the entire organizations. For the success of any organization, nurturing and use of knowledge is important for all the parties involved (Cohen Levinthal 1990). The second aspect entails knowledge-related processes. These processes are commonly found in organizations and may have a wide range of applications including but not limited to transforming, creating, safeguarding, compiling, pooling, building, organizing and applying knowledge. For better results, it is important for these areas to be properly and explicitly managed, with regard to all sectors that could be affected. In the understanding of this concept, it is imperative to undersc ore the need for effective knowledge management in order to achieve individual and organizational objectives (Cohen Levinthal 1990). In this line of thought, management of knowledge in organizations must be internalized from three stances as discussed below:Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Business perspective From this point of view, the management is usually tasked to focus on where, why and to what degree an organization is supposed to invest and exploit knowledge in the running of its services. In general, knowledge augments development of services, strategies, products, acquisitions and alliances (Coombs Hull 1998). A good example of this is corporate strategy, which only thrives depending on how knowledge is managed within an organization. Additionally, planning and designing of new products and services principally depends on knowledge. It is also vital to note that knowledge management is needed to give direction to an organization to create, install and exploit knowledge assets and if possible establish joint collaborations with an aim of exploiting knowledge. Management perspective In this perspective, knowledge-related activities are usually given preference through determination, monitoring and directing of relevant processes in order to attain desired business goals and objectives. Moreover, every organization requires knowledge to develop knowledge, regarding the creation, transfer, acquisition, usage and retention of knowledge (Coombs Hull 1998). As a result, it is doubtless that management of knowledge is necessary to examine processes and adopt policies and ideas, which are indispensable during the identification of knowledge-related activities. Operational perspective Unlike the above discussed stances, this perspective requires the management to be committed to employing the services of expertise to perform clear know ledge-related work and responsibilities. Furthermore, one requires knowledge in order to carry out a research to establish knowledge status, as a way of discovering the available knowledge that is necessary in future development of human resources. Importantly, knowledge management is essential for the purpose of better training, establishment of a pool of knowledge and systems and better research and development. From this discussion of the three perspectives, it is worth noting that management of knowledge requires relevant attention and analysis from people with reputable skills like researchers and business management experts (Coombs Hull 1998).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on The characteristics of organizational knowledge specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the study of knowledge management, Ryle’s work of 1949 is considered to be the first piece of literature to be published, covering the concept o f knowledge. In The Concept of Mind, Ryle brought to the attention of the world the concepts of know-that and know-how, which is sometimes referred to as know-what (Ryle 1949, p. 2). On the other hand, it was concluded that knowledge can broadly be divided into tacit and explicit knowledge (Polanyi 1966, p. 5). These two types of knowledge will be discussed in later segments of this paper. In his 1987 research, Von Hippel described information trading as the readiness of employees to fit in varying organizations, including their direct competitors for the purpose of informal exchange of information (Von 1987). He further defined knowledge transfer as the process which a member of a given network is influenced by what happens in the life of another member. These explanations are based on the fact that most employees exchange information through a process, to allow the formation of new knowledge about current products as well as new ones to be created in future (Ryle 1949, p. 2). Desp ite the efforts made by these authors, it is imperative to note that their work received almost no attention from organizational management until early 1990s. Nevertheless, many Multi National Enterprises were forced to downsize and retrench some employees towards the end of 1980s, an incident, which was mainly fuelled by sluggish business activities. Among other factors, the world witnessed major stock market stock market crashes, which forced most organizations to revaluate their strategies to mitigate the impact of these effects (Polanyi 1966, p. 5). As a result, there was the birth of two major business and management aspects, which were process re-engineering and knowledge management concept. In 1990, Nonaka gave a detailed explanation on the two types of knowledge, namely, tacit and explicit knowledge. From his approach, explicit knowledge can be obtained through gathering of information that is collected from customer files, manuals, databases, and software.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This type is also referred as structural capital (Nonaka 1990, p. 15). On the other hand, tacit knowledge may exist in the minds of suppliers, employees and customers, and it is commonly referred to as human capital. When the two types of knowledge are combined, they result into an intellectual capital of the organization. Based on previous history, it is noteworthy that interest in the topic of knowledge management has exponentially been realized, with several learning and research institutions identifying it as a major discipline (Nonaka 1990, p. 15). The rise of Knowledge Management As indicated in the previous segment of this paper, a host of people have developed interest in the concept of knowledge management for several years. However, this interest attained its peak in 1990s, when massive research was being done by scholars and researchers. Throughout this period, these authors have attained a consensus with regard to the impact of knowledge management in organizational perf ormance. It is regarded as a major tool that is effective in attaining a competitive advantage within the business industry, together with a myriad of other advantages. Additionally, exchange and sharing of knowledge has been applauded especially to increase its relevance to the functioning of a given organization (Bohn 1994). As one of the writers who have contributed to the expansion of this field, Nonaka proposed that a high level of attention is usually required when handling knowledge processes and the procedure of creating new knowledge (Nonaka 1991). Additionally, knowledge may change meaning especially when it is moved to a different context. As a result, a match between the recipient’s point of view and the nature of the received is quite significant. It is equally important to emphasize that creation of knowledge is always a continuous process, which mainly starts at an individual’s level, before expanding to other sections, division and even beyond the confi nes of an organization (Bohn 1994). In analysing the impact of some of the findings recorded by various authors, it suffices to mention that some of the information left gaps like how to identify existing type of knowledge mismatches or finding the sources for the mismatches. Important findings were also made by and Nonaka and Takeuchi in 1995, when they affirmed that explicit knowledge can easily be articulated and disseminated in a wide range of formats, while tacit information is generally hidden and unspoken (Nonaka Takeuchi 1995, p. 10). Furthermore, Nonaka and Takeuchi argued that knowledge conversion has four modes, which are: internationalism, socialism, internationalism and a combination of the three modes. As a result, it is prudent for an organization to prepare for one of the above mentioned modes when settling on a particular knowledge management program that is deemed more feasible than others (Bohn 1994). Conversion modes The SECI (Socialization, Externalization, Com bination, and Internalization) theory recognizes the fact that knowledge has four modes of conversion, which are important since they are believed to be the sources of knowledge. The four conversations are summarized below: The first mode as described by the theory is that it converts tacit knowledge from tacit knowledge and is commonly referred to as socialization. The only recognized way of achieving this is through individual sharing of knowledge with other individuals based on their experiences in the field. The second mode is viewed as a combination since it converts explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge. Unlike in the first mode, knowledge is generated through sorting and re-categorizing of the available knowledge from the sources. On the other hand, externalization revolves around converting tacit knowledge to explicit organizational information (Nonaka 1991). According to this mode, the knowledge of an individual can be converted into a form that can be well understood by other people in the same group. It is therefore applied with an aim of creating new knowledge that would be relevant to the organization, in making it more competitive. The last mode is internationalism, which converts explicit knowledge to tacit information. This mode allows one to understand knowledge that is directly linked to an individual in an organization. Importantly, this stage allows practical application of knowledge in generating new and better organization’s routines. Another research, which is well recognized in the study of the concept of knowledge management, was done by Coombs and Hull in 1998, who argued that the field can be divided into three segments. The first one is knowledge processing. It is believed that this category of knowledge management mainly revolves around transfer, capture, utilization, codification, identification and format among others (Coombs Hull 1998). The second one is knowledge domains, which principally deals with classification o f knowledge. For example, several areas of knowledge acquisition present different factors. These areas are technical knowledge, process knowledge, product knowledge, external and internal knowledge, and process knowledge. Lastly, knowledge formality is literally concerned with the general format of knowledge. For example, formal knowledge presents a different format from informal knowledge (Coombs Hull 1998). In addition, knowledge management plays a significant role in determining the quality of services and products given by a given organization. For instance, these management processes are viewed as ways through which addition of value to inputs, which is later used in the production of processed-knowledge. This approach significantly adds value to clients. Nevertheless, specific requirements for this vary widely across industries. Four primary processes have been put forth, which are important when handling resources of knowledge. These include utilization of knowledge, value addition to information, knowledge generation and knowledge capturing. Similarly, organizations are usually encouraged to adopt additional processes for sorting and accessing knowledge to allow the four requirements above to function effectively. For instance, other people should be given a chance to identify the relevance of particular knowledge even if it is coded. Moreover, information can only be converted into knowledge when it is relevant, understandable and usable. This double emphasizes the need for assessing and evaluating any kind knowledge before it can be used. For performance strategies to work, it is important for an organization to have the right knowledge that is required. In this context, poor or defective knowledge may undermine the viability of organizational strategies. In this essence, there exists a relationship between availability of poor knowledge and the unachievable strategies. It is therefore the role of the management to create a match between intended s trategies and the realized strategies. This mismatch of knowledge is known as a knowledge gap while strategic gaps define differences between the realized strategy and the intended strategy. In this understanding, mapping techniques are commonly applied in establishing what organization can do while backward mapping identifies important aspects that have to be known to the organization (Soliman 1998). Similarly, in cases where complex knowledge management systems exist, it has been mentioned that this may enhance realization of intensive knowledge network. Importantly, a combination of knowledge loops and spirals has the potential of leading an organization into knowledge gaps. This stage is usually followed by the occurrence of strategic gaps, which may result into poor organizational performance. Attributes and characteristics of Knowledge Every enterprise is always challenged to perform better than existing competitors in the market. In achieving this competitive advantage, some management experts argue that knowledge is a major tool required for the task. This is mainly because organizations, which are able to define their knowledge management activities, get opportunities to make potential improvement, which yields competitive advantage within the business market. Similarly, correct knowledge should be able to identify areas of weakness within the organization, which could hinder the firm from attaining competitive advantage over other organizations. As discussed in the previous segments of this paper, it is doubtless that knowledge gaps could be one of the factors hampering competitive advantage in most organizations. Based on the irreplaceable role played by knowledge management, it is essential for an organization to identify and segment knowledge for the purpose of determining the usefulness of every knowledge segment. Knowledge-based systems need to have the following seven characteristics. They must have reasoning and programming capabilities Have e nough knowledge regarding a given domain or situation Must have an inference engine, different from the knowledge base Can handle varying data, say, uncertain conflicting and unknown Must allow easy medication by the administrator Have a source that explains the reasoning process Must extensively use â€Å"if-then rules† Notably, many organizations are usually faced with the challenge of disseminating knowledge to where it is needed by people. Consequently, available knowledge may require sorting and screening to ensure that only relevant information is delivered (Soliman 1998). What are some of the attributes of knowledge that have to be considered when disseminating information to where it is needed? Accuracy Although it is not easy to determine the accuracy of knowledge, experts agree that one is able to measure knowledge against envisaged knowledge. The degree of closeness of the two aspects may therefore determine the confidence of people in the knowledge applied and the ultimate value of the knowledge. Nevertheless, reproducibility and repeatability of knowledge may be tied on other factors. In its application and definition, accuracy may refer to correctness, reliability or truthfulness. Timeliness and currency According to knowledge management experts, the main aim of timeliness is for one to avoid making decisions, that are out of date and which may harm the progress of an organization. In this respect, it suffices to mention that valid knowledge must be current. In other words, one is able to find out when the knowledge was obtained, revised and whether it is current or out of date. Relevance of knowledge In the application of any information, there is usually a lot of weight attached to relevance and organizational impact. In this context, the relevance of knowledge could therefore be determined based on a range of factors including functionality, flexibility, importance, reliability, portability, functionality and importance. With regard to the impact of the knowledge, this is principally determined by the value of the working environment and the overall performance (Davenport Short 1990). The benefits of knowledge relevance could be determined by the relationship of the knowledge to the topic, target users of the knowledge, and the level of the knowledge. Authority This deals with the origin of the knowledge in order to determine its authenticity and reality. The source of any information can be determined by finding out the author, publisher and sponsor. Additionally, the author’s credentials are important and his or her affiliate organization in handling knowledge. Purpose It is vital to establish the need for a given type of knowledge. This is usually considered to be critical in establishing the integrity of a particular type of knowledge. The intended purpose of information can therefore be determined by establishing the intensions of the authors, impartiality or objectivity of the information and the kin d of biases present. Importance This entails a wide range of issues, including the ability to control the characteristics of knowledge within the organization, its focus and its timing. However, important knowledge has to meet the needs of a given organization, by responding to a real world problem in a manner that allows the realization of a solution. Accessibility This simply denotes the understandability of knowledge. Knowledge may lose meaning especially in cases where it is considered to be difficult to comprehend. Additionally, this encompasses the readability and its focus towards realizing the objectives of the organization. Applicability This involves the completeness of knowledge and its ability to provide direction to the organization. Inapplicability of knowledge may cause it to become irrelevant. This concept also covers the completeness of the knowledge and availability of recommendations for sober actions to be taken. This may hinder its application even when it is pe rceived to relevant (Davenport Short 1990). Suitability This is mainly concerned with how the knowledge being sourced is important and suitable to the organization in meeting the needs of the organization. Many knowledge management experts believe that there is a connection between the applicability of knowledge and its suitability to satisfy the needs of an organization (Soliman 1998). Knowledge that is important and suitable to an organization can be enhanced in future to make it more satisfying in meeting its intended purpose. As mentioned above, the aim of having proper information about knowledge management is to develop effective operations, establish control mechanisms, compare results, gauge performance and take remedial action if deemed necessary (Soliman 1998). In this regard, it can be deduced that the above characteristics of knowledge have an array of advantages, which can be realized by an organization through effective knowledge management. This is to say that organi zations are tasked to enhance their efficacy through excellent knowledge management practices, with the absence of non-value-adding task (Soliman 1998). Conclusion From the above analysis, it is evident that knowledge management is widely recognized as a priceless tool in organizational management. If well implemented, proper knowledge management programs have the potential of influencing the performance of an organization positively (Campos Sanchez 2003). As a result, it is highly regarded as a competitive advantage tool in the business world. On this basis, there is every need for organizations to review and evaluate their knowledge management tools in order to have them inclined towards attaining set goals and objectives. Good strategies should therefore be implemented, with reference to the current knowledge that addresses the needs of the organization. Importantly, the ability of any organization to thrive to today’s business environment is solely determined by the way knowledge and skills are coherently applied in the running of the organization. In implementing this, the management has the responsibility of assessing knowledge and determining its feasibility in achieving the goals of the organization. Lack of such skills is crucial and may undermine the success of any organization. References Bohn, R 1994, ‘Measuring and Managing Technological Knowledge’, Sloan Management Review, pp. 61–73. Campos, E Sanchez, M 2003, ‘Knowledge management in the emerging strategic business process: Information, complexity and imagination’, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 7 no. 2, pp. 5-17. Cohen, W Levinthal, D 1990, ‘Absorptive Capacity: a New Perspective on Learning and Innovation’, Administration Science Quarterly, vol. 35, pp. 128-152. Coombs, R Hull, R 1998, ‘Knowledge Management Practices and Path-dependency in Innovation’, Research Policy, vol. 27 no. 3, pp. 237-253. Davenport, T Short, J 1990, ‘The new Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign’, Sloan Management Review, pp. 11–27. Nonaka, I Takeuchi, H 1995, The Knowledge-Creating Company, Oxford University Press, New York. Nonaka, I 1990, A Theory of Organisational Knowledge Creation, Nihon KeizaiShimbun, Tokyo. Nonaka, I1991, ‘The knowledge creating company’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 69 no. 6, pp. 96–104. Polanyi, M 1966, The Tacit Dimension, Routledge, London: Ryle, G 1949, The Concept of Mind, Hutchinson, London, U. K. Soliman, F 1998, ‘Optimum Level of Process Mapping and Least Cost Business Process Re-Engineering’, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, vol. 18 no. 5, pp. 810-816. Von, H 1987, ‘Cooperation between Rivals: Informal Know-How Trading’, Research Policy, vol. 16, pp. 291-302.

Argument Against Universal Health Care in the Us Essay Example for Free

Argument Against Universal Health Care in the Us Essay Argument Against Universal Health Care in the Us BY shaker71493 Jacob Nieuwenhuis Contemporary Issues MSR 10 March 2010 Universal Health Care in the United States â€Å"Of all tyrannies, a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victims may be the most oppressive. It would be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron’s cruelty may sometimes sleep. His cupidity may at some time point be satisfied; but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience. The issue of universal health care taking over the present health care system has become a heated topic all over America. With President Obama’s promise to pass a bill that will give government coverage to all Americans, most people were happy that health care would become more affordable for them. But is this the case? There has been a stiff opposition to the passing of any bill of this kind throughout the entire process, but the longer a bill stays in circulation the more time people have to form an opinion on the issue. With the law in effect now the issue now turns to if this will e better off for America in the long run, and if there is any good to such a system. History has a lot to say about socialized medicine. There have been many countries, not only socialistic countries which have used a public method of offering medicine. A few of these countries are Great Britain, Canada, France, Australia, and also the European system. These systems will be analyzed from their ro ots up in order to see whether they were successes or failures. The National Health Service (NHS) of Great Britain, which was created on July 5, 1948, is the world’s largest publicly funded health service ever. As can be seen on the diagram, the NHS is divided into two sections: primary and secondary care. Primary care is the first point of contact for most people and is delivered by a wide range of independent service providers, including general practitioners, dentists, pharmacists and optometrists. Secondary care is known as acute healthcare and can be either elective care or emergency care. Elective care means planned specialist medical care or surgery, usually following referral from a primary or community health professional such as a general practitioner. In this system there are a lot of different trusts (refer to iagram). These trusts are where the money is sent for certain types of care. The main trusts are the Primary care trusts. Primary care trusts (PCTs) are in charge of primary care and have a major role around commissioning secondary care, providing community care services. They are the main core to the NHS and control 80% of the NHS budget. Green, did a report on the effects of preventive care in Great Britain for diseases such as circulatory disease and cancer. His main focus was on the circulatory system and the conclusion of his reports states that: â€Å"The main findings can be summarized as follows. The I-JK has a poor record of preventing death from diseases of the circulatory system. After allowing for the different age structure of each country in the European Union, the I-JK death rate from circulatory diseases for persons aged less than 65 was ranked thirteenth out of the 15 countries studied. † There are many negative aspects of the NHS. There are stunning reports of people who didn’t get care, or who waited for months in order to get prevented care. One example of a terrible thing that happened recently in Great Britain was a cancer patient who had to wait for 62 weeks before starting treatment. Patients were outraged by this. They said that for some cancer patients with slow growing tumors could wait that long but that it is atrocious that someone would have to wait that long to receive any type of care at all. It was compared side by side with a case from 20 years earlier, when Heather Goodare was diagnosed with the same problem and eceived treatment within two weeks after first being diagnosed. The European system has run into a lot of obstacles over the years, mostly financial. There is currently a 5 percent to 8 percent increase in expenses per year in real terms, resulting in enormous deficits and even greater problems when the rate of unemployment rises. When employment rates improve, the deficits are eased because more taxes come in to pay for care. But as soon as employment falls again (which is common everywhere right about now), deficits come back. A common method used for getting over this deficit is rationing care and restricting use of high ost preventive cares such as CAT scans. Sometimes this is only towards people who meet a certain criteria, e. g. the elderly. This can only be bad for the consumer. Michael Tanner sums this up nicely in his article condemning socialized medicine in the U. S. : â€Å"The Europeans have run into a very simple economic rule. If something is for it. Think of it this way: if food were free, would you eat hamburger or steak? At the same time, health care is a finite good. There are only so many doctors, so many hospital beds and so much technology. If people over consume those resources, it drives up the cost of health care. â€Å" All the countries in Europe have this health care system. There are, however, three countries in Europe that allow their citizens to opt out of the official system and to take with a tax credit for the money they paid to the official system, to purchase private insurance in the health market. These countries are Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. In those countries, citizens do not have to pay twice in order to acquire private health insurance. The systems of these three countries are important in that they may point the way to a solution for the current financial problems Western health care systems are experiencing. This private plan is more expensive but reachable for at least a third of the population. For the most part, people in Europe are happy with the health care they receive. In the Netherlands there is a basic plan that everyone can buy (it is not a government mandate). This covers things such as broken limbs, emergency room visits Oust the visit), and seeing general practitioners. On top of this, a person may buy whatever â€Å"premium add-ons they want. An example of an add-on is dental and orthodontic care. With this add-on all the people in the household of the insurance buyer receive ull dental care as well as braces for all the children of the family. Trudy Rubin, who is a Philadelphia Inquirer opinion columnist, says that the United States is not learning valuable lessons from the European system of healthcare. She addresses the three myths that she thinks are thought to be believed as fact. She takes these myths from an excerpt from T. R. Reid. The three myths are as follows: à ¢â‚¬Å"Myth No. 1, he says, is that foreign systems with universal coverage are all â€Å"socialized medicine. † In countries such as France, Germany, Switzerland, and Japan, the coverage is universal while doctors and insurers are private. Individuals get their insurance through their workplace, sharing the premium with their employer as we do – and the government picks up the premium if they lose their Job. Myth No. 2, which is long waits and rationed care – is another whopper. â€Å"In many developed countries,† Reid writes, â€Å"people have quicker access to care and more choice than Americans do. † In France, Germany, and Japan, you can pick any provider or hospital in the country. Care is speedy and high quality, and no one is turned down. Myth No. 3 really grabs my attention: the delusion that countries with universal care â€Å"are wasteful systems run y bloated bureaucracies. † In fact, the opposite is true. America’s for-profit health insurance companies have the highest administrative costs of any developed country. Twenty percent or more of every premium dollar goes to nonmedical costs: paperwork, marketing, profits, etc. â€Å"If a profit is to be made, you need a n army of underwriters to deny claims and turn down sick people,† says Reid. † Canada is another place where health care is run by the government. This came into effect when the parliament unanimously passed the Canadian Health Act in system. Under this law, provinces must ensure that their health care systems respect ive criteria: The first is public administration. This means that the health insurance plans must be administered by a public authority who is accountable to the government. The second is comprehensive benefit. The plan must cover all medically necessary services prescribed by physicians and provided by hospitals. The third is universality. This means all legal residents of the province must be covered. The fourth criterion is portability. Under this, residents continue to be covered if they move or travel from one province to another. And the final criterion is accessibility. This means that services must be made available to all residents on equal terms, regardless of income, age, or ability to pay. The process which a patient goes through to receive health care is very simple. When a person goes to a doctor for any kind of medical treatment they have to present what is called a provincial health card. This is a credit card-looking piece of plastic that lets your physician know you are a legal user of the system Argument Against Universal Health Care in the Us. (2018, Oct 31).

Translation review 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Translation review 5 - Essay Example A collective noun is a noun, which denotes a group of entities, and can be distinguished "from other nouns by a distinct patter of number contrast." It is therefore a single collective entity. It usually allows a flexible choice of pronoun as this can be either singular or plural depending on the perception of individuality within the group. As far as translation is concerned, the choice reflects a nuance in meaning relating to gender. English not only has a wider range of collective nouns than Arabic, it also "gives the speaker many such choices to express his attitude to the content of his message". And, as with translation in general, there are variations in the scope of meaning of words between languages. In Arabic, collective nouns "can be treated as singular depending on their form, and they can be treated as plural depending on their meaning" such as in sa’ara and sa’aru’ respectively. So pluralization of collectives is possible in both languages though the range of collectives is greater in English. Using examples of collective nouns, this study tests a group of 20 college students in backtranslating and presents the results with analysis. The hypothesis is that "testees are going to use the item group as the equivalent for most of the collective nouns of English." The findings showed that "most of the students faced problems in finding the exact equivalents for some of the nouns." The grammatical mistakes showed that "Arabic is richer in its grammatical system than English." The article addresses an issue in translation theory that has hitherto received little attention. It makes a thorough exploration of the issue of backtranslating by means of a test on sets of collective nouns. The number of testees is not much of an issue because in back translating we are concerned not with the quantity but the quality of the translation and the semantic precision. The topic is a good illustration of some of the difficulties of translating

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 34

Case study - Essay Example The mediator does not enjoy a determinative or advisory function, with respect to the dispute or the outcome of its resolution (Spencer & Brogan, 2006, p. 8). NADRAC’s model of mediation entails a neutral third party intervention, vis-Ã  -vis the dispute in question. It facilitates the disputants to arrive at an agreement. Considerable variation can occur, with regard to the extent to which the mediator intervenes. However, this does not extend to deciding the outcome. The mediator can suggest methods for resolving the dispute (Astor & Chinkin, 2002, p. 84). Several means of procuring the assistance of experts are available to disputing parties. In general, these entail the third party conducting an independent examination of a few of the circumstances of the dispute and providing a report of such investigation to these parties. On occasion, the mediator could also provide advice regarding desirable, probable and possible results (Astor & Chinkin, 2002, p. 89). The mediator conducts an investigation of the dispute and furnishes advice regarding the disputed facts. As such, expert appraisal provides an independent, impartial, and objective evaluation of the disputed issues. This is made available by an expert appointed for this purpose by the disputing parties (Astor & Chinkin, 2002, p. 89). The expert cannot make recommendations, although further negotiations can be based on his opinion. Nevertheless, he can employ the findings to suggest desirable, probable and possible outcomes to the dispute. Upon the parties consenting to the factual findings being final and binding, the process acquires a determinative aspect (Young, 2001). For the above scenario, I employed the Expert Appraisal and Determination method of Alternative Dispute Resolution, as the dispute requires an expert opinion regarding the absence of air bags in the car. Since there are no precedents in this area, an expert can provide a suitable solution to the problem, after

Investigation into transition metals as catalysts Essay Example for Free

Investigation into transition metals as catalysts Essay Hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly to form water and oxygen gas. Transition metal oxides will catalyse this reaction. A catalyst speeds up a reaction without being used up. The best catalyst for a reaction increases the rate of reaction the most. The rate of reaction can be measured by the amount of product formed divided by the time of the reaction. If 40 ml of oxygen were produced in 30 seconds (0. 5min), then the rate of reaction would be 80 ml/min. Planning- the apparatus available will be: 20 volume hydrogen peroxide solution (irritant), copper dioxide (harmful), iron oxide, manganese dioxide (harmful), spatulas, ele4ctronic balance, measuring cylinder, trough (water bath), stop watch, thistle funnel, delivery tube, bungs to take funnel and tube, boiling tubes. Safety Precautions   Wear goggles.   Make sure that the hydrogen peroxide does not make contact with skin and/or hair.   Wipe bench thoroughly after experiment. Variables Each catalyst should be tested twice, however the catalyst should be altered after each experiment. Constants. Volume/concentration of hydrogen peroxide (10cm3 of 20 vol. hydrogen peroxide + 10cm3 of water).   Amount of each catalyst (1g).   Time left for/intervals at which gas is measured (every 5 seconds for 50 seconds).   Same general apparatus. NB. Wash apparatus after each experiment. Measurements The volume of gas (oxygen) produced will be measured during each test at 5-second intervals- this will be done by measuring how much water is displaced in the measuring cylinder by the gas. Each catalyst will be tested twice, and the test will last for 50 seconds on each occasion. Results Manganese. Time (secs) Experiment 1 (vol. of Oxygen cm3) Experiment 2 (vol. of Oxygen cm3) Average (vol. Of Oxygen cm3) Copper Time (secs) Experiment 1 (vol. of Oxygen cm3) Experiment 2 (vol. of Oxygen cm3) Average (vol. Of Oxygen cm3)   Iron Time (secs) Experiment 1 (vol. of Oxygen cm3). Experiment 2 (vol. Of Oxygen cm3) Average (vol.Average rate of reaction Average rate= volume/time=.. cm3/sec Manganese dioxide= 96/40= 2. 4 cm3/sec. Copper oxide= 27/50= 0. 54 cm3/sec. Iron dioxide= 27/50= 0. 54 cm3/sec. 20 vol. of hydrogen peroxide means that each cm3 gives off 20 cm3 of oxygen gas. We diluted it to 10 vol. Using water and so we would have expected 100 cm3 of oxygen. Hence manganese dioxide as well as being the best catalyst also caused more hydrogen peroxide to break down. Evaluation Although the results obtained were fairly good, there were quite a few problems during the experiment, which affected them. These were:   It was difficult to fill the measuring cylinder with water, as well as insert it into the trough (water bath) without any escaping and creating difficulties in measuring the gas produced.   The largest measuring cylinder was only 100 cm3. This was very relevant as one of the tests for manganese dioxide exceeded 100 cm3 in gas produced, therefore a larger cylinder was needed. The catalysts were very fine powders, which made it difficult to measure out exactly 1g.   When gas was being produced and coming off fast, it was difficult to read the measurements accurately as the surface of the water wasnt steady. (It was also difficult when a gas bubble came up while the gas volume was being measured). In act to improve the experiment and thus make the results more accurate, the following could have been done: A wider measuring cylinder used so that gas being produced rapidly would not disturb the water surface as much, making the volume of gas easier to measure. A larger measuring cylinder used so that gas volumes exceeding 100 cm3 could be measured and therefore the results not interrupted with.   Repeat testing (i. e. 3 tests for each catalyst) carried out so that there is less room for error whilst obtaining results. This would also make them more reliable. When the results were obtained, there were some noticeable abnormalities i. e. anomalous results. These were; the measurement of gas after 5 seconds when testing iron dioxide, and the tests when using manganese dioxide. This was because when manganese dioxide was being tested, there were large differences in measurements at each time interval, therefore experimental errors must have occurred (after 40 seconds on the first test, the gas volume also exceeded 100 cm3, whilst in the second test this did not happen until after the 50 second limit). The other anomalous result was when testing iron dioxide, as after the first 5 seconds, there was a large difference in the volume of gas between the 2 tests carried out (30 cm3 : 20 cm3). The cause of these anomalous results is most likely related to the surface area of the catalyst in correlation with each test carried out i. e. the powdered catalyst may have been slanted up the boiling tube during one test, but not on the other, resulting in different surface areas. Shaking the boiling tube before each test and/or using a wider testing tube, could have however prevented this. From the results obtained, you can also not definitely state the best catalyst for his reaction, as all 31 transition metals were not tested. Therefore to extend this investigation to find the best catalyst for producing oxygen gas from hydrogen peroxide solution, all the transition metals could have been tested as well as repeat tested for verification. This, in conclusion, would have found the best catalyst for this particular reaction.   Daniel Powell. 10k. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

Agent Orange :: Vietnam War Essays

Agent Orange In 1961, the United States began spraying herbicides in its military campaign to defoliate the jungles of southern Vietnam. Mimicking Smokey Bear, American pilots chuckled "Remember! Only you can prevent forests," as they dropped weed killers over target sites. But as research progressed, the true nature of the chemicals which they were spraying came to light. It is certainly no longer a laughing matter when it is realized that Agent Orange, a major herbicide used, could be as deadly to humans as it is to plants. The military research of herbicides dates back to World War II (1). Ineffectiveness prevented them from being used in the war. By the late 1950’s, however, herbicides developed could defoliate a large variety of plants. Naturally, they were thought to be a great weapon in combating jungle warfare. Applied to the Vietnam War, herbicides were used to defoliate the jungle and to destroy crops. Defoliation stripped the jungle of vegetation. Left barren, it no longer provided camouflage for the Viet Cong, their supply routes and base camps which would be more prone to aerial attacks. Crop destruction denied the communists of local food sources. This forced them to divert more resources to provide and transport foods other regions. But just as important, crop destruction also weakened enemy morale and forced villagers to move to cities where they could be more easily controlled. The program for spraying herbicides over Vietnam was code named Operation Trail Dust. It began in 1961 and peaked from 1967 to 1969 (2). Various methods were employed to systematically spray these chemicals. On ground, they were used by soldiers to clear the perimeters of their base camps. Riverboats were used to spray the riverbanks. Most damage to the jungle was done by air. The Air Force Operation Ranch Hand, as it was called, used C-123 cargo aircrafts and helicopters to drop the majority of the herbicides used. There were many types of herbicides used by the United States in Vietnam. Each was named after the color of the 4-inch band painted around the 55-gallon drums in which it was contained: Agent White, Purple, Blue, Green, Pink and Orange. In all, 19.4 million gallons of herbicides were used, 60% of which were Agent Orange (2). The effects of the sprayings on the jungle were immediately recognizable. Estimates show that six million acres or twenty percent of the entire land area of the Republic of South Viet Nam was covered with chemical poisons (3).

Dispositional vs. Biological Theory Essay

Dispositional personality theories are quite different from biological personality theories. The two will be compared and dissected in this article. The Big Five Personality Test will also be analyzed and how it is used to study personality will be examined. Dispositional personality theories contend that each person per certain stable, long lasting dispositions. These dispositions make a person display certain emotions, attitudes, and behaviors. These dispositions appear in many different kinds of situations, which lends the belief that people behave in predictable ways even when they are in different situations. The theory also states that each person has a different set of dispositions, or that their sets of dispositions have different strengths which assembles a unique pattern. There are two different types of dispositional theories, type and trait theories. Type theories assign people to different categories. These categories depend on the individual’s temperament. Hippoc rates and Galen suggest temperament is based on body fluids (which sounds a bit outlandish). Blood is said to represent the sanguine temperament. This is a person who is warmhearted, optimistic, and laid back. Phlegm is a phlegmatic person who is lethargic, calm, and slow to action (when one thinks about this in relation to actual phlegm it is quite disgusting). Black bile is a melancholic person, an individual who might be very sad and depressed. Last but not least, is yellow bile, which represents a choleric personality. A choleric personality is someone who is angry, assertive, and quick to action. The theory states that whichever body fluid is highest determines the personality type. As a modern person this theory sounds implausible. If one has a cold, and therefore more phlegm does that change their personality? And for how long does the personality change last? As long as the cold lasts  or longer? The other type of dispositional personality theories is trait theories. Trait theories assume people have many traits that are continuing qualities that individuals have in different amounts. Allport’s theory suggests that there are 3 main traits: central, secondary, and cardinal. A central trait is a characteristic that controls and organizes behavior in various situations. A secondary trait can be described as a preference and is specific to certain situations. A cardinal trait is very general and pervasive. It is so pervasive that an individual is governed by it and it dictates everything a person does. The limitations to dispositional theories are that they describe people more than they strive to understand them. It is also confining to think of a personality being put into a box instead of being given room to grow and change as lives and experiences evolve. As an individual one does not like to think they are always to have the same personality or be the same for their entire lifetimes. One wants to learn, grow and change as they experience life instead of depending on the levels of body fluid they might have on a particular day. The strengths are that they helped develop objective personality tests that have become very common in personality assessment. Biological theories suggest genetics have a big part to play in personality. Some have suggested that people with high cortical arousal are introverts who avoid stimulation. While individuals with low cortical arousal are extroverts who look for stimulating experiences. These may be genetic. One would think that biology does indeed play a part in personality; especially in younger years before life experiences alter one’s personality. This author has seen it in babies. One child leans strongly towards the father’s personality, more serious, organized, bossy, and controlling. The other child, although very close in age and with the same parents leans more towards the mother’s personality, carefree, messy, easily laughs, silly, and fun. They are too young to yet have life that has influenced how they behave, but naturally their personality mimics that of their different parents. This lends the belief that while biology may not dictate one’s personality for one’s entire life, certain traits can indeed be passed down through generations. The strengths of biological theories are that one may observe previous generations and make decisions based on the personalities of those before them, either copying success or avoiding pitfalls. The limita tion is that one is not  confined to be just like parents. One has the freedom of choice in how they conduct themselves and that can change one’s personality over time. The Big Five Personality Test is a test that determines the strongest personality traits an individual possesses. There are 5 broad dimensions of personality used to describe an individual’s personality. The five factors are neuroticism, openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness. The test determines which factor is the highest, lowest, and the ones that fall in between. This author took the test, and in this time of life, found it to be fairly accurate. The highest score was agreeableness and that plays out regularly in everyday life. The Big Five Personality test helps one study personality over time because it gives a way for one to measure personality changes over time. One can also see how traits relate to other variables such as confidence, music preferences, and more. One can also observe how different stages of life change which traits are dominant. Overall, dispositional and biological personality theories give one a lot of insight into personality, whether it is correct or not, it is a way to delve deeper into oneself to learn about motivations and behavior. Some theories seem a little crazy, such as type theories, and others make a little more sense and give insight into the behaviors of others and oneself. The personality test is the most interesting of all, giving yourself a glimpse into your personality and how it changes over time. References Feist, J., Feist, G. J., & Roberts, T. (2013). Theories of personality (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Psychology Today. (2011). Big five personality test. Retrieved from http://psychologytoday.tests.psychtests.com/take_test.php?idRegTest=1297

Analysis of the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Essay

Lady Macbeth is a complex and intriguing character – she presents various elements in her character, often surprising us with sudden turns of personality. This reflects with Macbeth and her, causing various changes in their relationship – drawing them both closer together, and pushing them away from one another. When we first meet Lady Macbeth in Act One, Scene 5, she is reading Macbeths letter. This is the letter that openly tells word for word what happened and what the witches told Macbeth. He obviously had no hesitation in being so open with his wife, which is notable. Straight away, Lady Macbeth takes from the letter her own interpretation, saying that she knows that Macbeth must now kill Duncan so that he can be King as the witches have said, but she also analyses his nature from the letter, fearing that he will be too good natured to carry it out. This suggests that she knows at this point that she is going to have to persuade him. As the scene progresses, an Attendant comes in and tells Lady Macbeth that the King is on his way to the castle to stay with them. Once he leaves, Lady Macbeth is speaking as if she is ultimately sure that this murder will go ahead. But she is fully aware that it is going to be emotionally very difficult to go through with, and she calls upon evil spirits to assist her murderous plans. â€Å"Come, you spirits, That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here And fill me from crown to the toe top full Of direst cruelty;† She does not want to have any human emotion within her, as she knows that that will cause her to possibly back down and not go through with her plans, so she begs that she lose her inner feelings of conscience; â€Å"Stop th’access and passage to remorse That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose nor keep peace between Th’effect of it.† At this point Macbeth enters she greets him with notions of future greatness, almost as if she is already beginning to tempt him with her ideas of murdering Duncan. She urges him to keep a welcoming look on his face when the others arrive, so as not to give away their deadly intentions. At the end of the scene Lady Macbeth gives him words of comfort by telling him not to worry, she will take care of things. Even that small gesture goes to show how controlling she likes to be, especially of this situation. The next scene that Lady Macbeth appears in is Act 1, Scene 6, where she has a brief appearance. She comes in simply to welcome Duncan with elaborate courtesy, almost over the top in her greeting. She is obviously making every effort to lull Duncan into a false sense of security. She also makes notable reference to the loyalty, obedience, and their gratefulness for his past honours to Macbeth and herself. This is a perfect example of the sort of open lying and falsehood that seems to come easy to Lady Macbeth. She has no trouble with coming out with any sort of lies so that her plans may run smoothly. This is evident of her character throughout the play. The next scene Lady Macbeth is in, Act 1, scene 7, is when she comes in straight after a monologue from Macbeth where he is struggling with his conscience. Now he has been left to his own thoughts for a while, he has began to think back to all the times that Duncan has helped and honoured him, and is quickly coming up with more and more reasons against going ahead with the murder. Once Lady Macbeth enters, Macbeth tells her that he is now not going to go through with it and Lady Macbeth reacts very negatively. She immediately accuses him of not loving her, claiming that if he did then he would go through with it. â€Å"From this time Such I account thy love. Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valour, As thou Art in desire ? This is blatant emotional blackmail, but when Macbeth doesn’t back down, she quickly gets more and more harsh with her words. She borders on over dramatic, while maintaining every sense of meaning what she says, (which in itself is debatable). She says that Macbeth is no man if he is to break such a promise. This reference of not being manly is also used later, by Macbeth himself, when he accuses the two murderers of not being real men, but dogs. â€Å"What beast was’t then That made you break this enterprise to me ? When you durst do it, then you were a man. And to be more than what you were, you would- Be so much more the man.† She then speaks the worst reference of all-she tells Macbeth that she would rather brutally kill her own child than to break such a promise. â€Å"I have given suck and know, How tender ’tis to love a babe that milks me: I would, while it was smiling in my face, Have plucked my nipple from his boneless gums And dashed the brains out, had I so sworn As you have done to this.† All of her words are pure shock tactics, attempting to make Macbeth feel awful for even thinking of disagreeing with her. And, just as she wants, he breaks and agrees to carry on with their plot. She reassures him that it will all go smoothly, and she will drug the guards, so that they can later be blamed for the deed. Again, she is reassuring Macbeth, and he is taking in everything she tells him. This is commonplace in their relationship, with what we have seen of the couple so far. The next scene our Lady appears in is Act 2, scene 2. Lady Macbeth has drugged the bodyguards as she stated she would, and is waiting on Macbeths return from killing Duncan. She is exhilarated with excitement but fears that the murder has not been gone through with. However soon after the scene begins, Macbeth returns, bloody daggers in hand. He tells her that he has in fact killed Duncan, but is distraught. He is obsessed by his inability to say ‘Amen’ after his cruel deed had been done. He is also transfixed by a voice that he had heard, crying that he has murdered sleep and would never sleep again. â€Å"Still it cried, ‘Sleep no more’ to all the house; ‘Glamis hath murdered sleep’, and therefore Cawdor Shall sleep no more: Macbeth shall sleep no more.† Lady Macbeth in her usual non-sympathising way dismisses his hallucinations and orders him to put the daggers back by the guards. â€Å"†Who was it, thus cried? Why, worthy thane, You do unbend your noble strength to think So brain-sickly of things. Go and get some water And wash this filthy witness from your hand. Why did you bring these daggers from your place? They must lie there. Go carry them and smear The sleepy grooms with Blood. Macbeth, changing his usual role in the relationship, refuses! â€Å"Ill go no more I am afraid to think what I have done; Look on’t again, I dare not. Lady Macbeth seems a little taken aback, but bossily takes the daggers to put them back herself. She leaves Macbeth to his own thoughts. A knocking sound frightens the already very fragile-minded Macbeth, and on Lady Macbeth’s almost immediate return, she tells him to pull himself together, and smoothly plans an alibi. This scene is another clear cut example of Lady Macbeths dominant role in her and her husbands relationship. It seems Macbeth’s strength in life is found within Lady Macbeth. And Lady Macbeth herself feeds on this. So this situation is a fantastic opportunity for each of the two to show how they in their own way depend on one another. The next scene Lady Macbeth appears in, is at a climax point when Duncan is found dead. When Lady Macbeth enters, she is told of the news, and she, smooth as silk, acts suitably shocked at the ‘news’. This would have been substantial enough, but then when Macbeth re-enters to tell them all that he has killed the two guards, Lady Macbeth attempts to take the attention from him, by fainting. Of course, this as planned takes eyes away from Macbeth, and the moment is broken. Some might say however, that at this point Lady Macbeth is acting of rather high suspicion from being so overly-dramatic. But we have to assume that they are already so distraught about Duncan, and still so wrapped up in all of the goings on, that they miss this-which of course suits Lady Macbeth down to the ground! 2 scenes later, when Lady Macbeth next appears, Act 3, scene 1, she is now heralded as Queen. She only has presence there for 3 short lines, but essentially helps Macbeth to invite Banquo to that evenings banquet, and again is almost overly welcoming, which might, looked at in other eyes, look again rather suspicious. The next scene that Lady Macbeth appears in is Act 3, Scene 2. The scenes between her appearance and this one, show Macbeth hiring murderers to kill Banquo. This is a massive pivotal step for Macbeth, as he is clearly taking matters into his own hands rather than relying upon his Lady. He is however still very wound up about the murder and what has gone on. This reflects into Lady Macbeth, as in this scene she is shown to be rather troubled at this point, because Macbeth is still utterly distraught at what has gone on. She advises him not to brood at what has gone on, but this makes little difference. This may be because he is simply too upset to notice her help, but may also be because he is ceasing to listen to her so much. Macbeth then goes on to talk about how he even envies the peace that Duncan has now that he is dead! It was certainly not part of Lady Macbeth’s plan for Macbeth to get so upset, and I don’t think she’s quite sure how to handle it! Then however, Macbeth turns his attentions to telling his wife to pay special attentions to Banquo that night at the banquet. He hints darkly to her of dark deeds going ahead that night. This is almost teasing her with information-he knows that she thrives on being the one in control and is almost lavish with his words. At this, Lady Macbeth says nothing, but we can but imagine how she would be feeling to have the notion that Macbeth is doing things without her guidance or leadership. The next scene she is in is Act 3 Scene 4. Banquo has now been killed by Macbeths hired murderers. This scene is the all important banquet scene. It is a banquet held by Macbeth and his Lady, to welcome all of the lords under him, and essentially to try and impress them so that they will support him. Therefore it is undoubtedly very important for everything to go well. The very beginning of the scene shows Macbeth welcoming them all, and inviting them to sit down. The murderers then enter to inform him of Banquo’s death, and Fleance’s escape. Macbeth is distressed at the news of Fleance’s escape, but soon consoles himself that Fleance is too young to do any harm. Then, Banquo’s ghost appears, and sits in Macbeths seat. Lennox urges him to sit down with them, but Macbeth denies that there is space for him to sit down. A small discussion takes place in which they are all urging Macbeth to sit down, and Macbeth continues to deny there is space! He then becomes increasingly upset, and accuses the Lords of putting Banquo’s ghost there. Sensing that there will be trouble, Lady Macbeth intervenes and tries to calm the situation, and the confused Lords, by telling them that Macbeth is having a momentary lapse, and not to encourage him as it will upset him further; â€Å"Sit, worthy friends. My lord is often thus, And hath been from his youth. Pray you, keep seat. The fit is momentary; upon a thought He will again be well. If much you note him You shall offend him and extend his passion. Feed, and regard him not.† She then turns to Macbeth and uses a past used expression of, â€Å"Are you a man?!† He answers that he is, and much alike to her character, dismisses him just as she has done so often before when Macbeth shows weakness. Macbeth tells her to look at the ghost, as he is seeing already, and then tries to ‘talk’ to the ghost! This shows how certain he is that Banquo’s ghost is there. The Ghost then leaves the room, and while still maintaining that he saw Banquo’s ghost, Macbeth broods for a short time on how the dead return. He then seems to settle himself, and apologises to his guests before proposing a toast of general good health to them all, and to Banquo. At this point, the situation seems to have been salvaged but then the Ghost re-enters and once again and Macbeth explodes into violent language, through obvious sheer fear. Lady Macbeth attempts to reassure the guests in between his outbursts. â€Å"Think of this, good peers, But as a thing of custom. ‘Tis no other, Only it spoils the pleasure of the time.† But as Macbeth rants on, terrified, she realises she is losing control of the situation, and makes a last bid of control by ordering the Lords to leave. â€Å"I pray you speak not; he grows worse and worse. Question enrages him. At once, good night. Stand not upon the order of your going, But go at once.† The Lords leave, while Macbeth broods on murder, and the general unnaturalness. Lady Macbeth does little to stop him, which suggests that she is finally at a loss of what to do. It is evident that she has lost control of him at this point. Macbeth vows that he will go and see the witches and will go by anything they tell him from now onwards. This may seem simple to Macbeth, but must be difficult for Lady Macbeth, as this is yet another blatant turn away from her control and guidance. She tells him to go to bed, not even commenting on his choice to go to the witches instead of her. After this scene, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth do not appear in any more scenes together. Macbeth most definitely continues to take the lead in the relationship, which is a complete and utter turn around from what we were seeing at the beginning of the play. Macbeths and his Lady’s relationship was based almost entirely on the fact that he depended on her completely, trusting her with everything. She in turn depended on him, as her role in their relationship purely was to guide and dominate Macbeth. This had worked perfectly fine until the point when they killed Duncan. This was a pivotal point in the play, because after Macbeth had gone through with the murder he, through his own decision and means, went and killed the guards. This was not part of Lady Macbeths structured plan, and this was his first break away from her regulation. From that point, Macbeth rapidly began to break away from Lady Macbeths domineering side, and started doing things for himself, notably when he arranged for Fleance and Banquo to be killed. As the play progresses it was evident that Macbeth was speedily becoming a much stronger, more brutal, and perhaps most significantly, self dependant. And as a direct result, Lady Macbeth faded out in her dominance and general persona. The next scene that Lady Macbeth appears in is much later in the play, which is Act 5, scene 1. She hasn’t even been mentioned during this time, let alone by Macbeth. The scene begins with a waiting-gentlewoman and a doctor. The Gentlewoman is telling the Doctor that she is concerned, as Lady Macbeth has been frequently been sleepwalking. He asks her what she has been saying all the while she has been sleepwalking, and she refuses to tell him. However at that point Lady Macbeth herself enters, sleepwalking, and he finds out for himself. She is seemingly rubbing her hands, which the Doctor enquires about. Then, Lady Macbeth speaks; â€Å"Yet here’ a spot† So the two onlookers listen to her words. â€Å"Out damned spot! Out, I say! One. Two. Why then ’tis time to do’t. Hell is murky. Fie, my lord, fie, a soldier, and afeard ? What need we fear ? Who knows it, when none can call our power to account? Yet who would have thought the old man to have so much blood in him?† And then; â€Å"The Thane of Fife had a wife. Where is she now ? What will these ne’er be clean? No more o’that, my lord, no more’that. You mar all this starting.† The Doctor and Gentlewoman at this point comment that they know that she has spoken of what she has not. She has basically just told them that she knows and was involved in murder. And still, she continues; â€Å"Here’s the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. O, O, O.† The doctor and gentlewoman are somewhat shocked at her words and state that her heart is heavily burdened. The Doctor says that, â€Å"This disease is beyond my practise†, meaning that he cannot heal her saddened heart. And then Lady Macbeth speaks again; â€Å"Wash your hands, out on your nightgown, look not so pale. I tell you yet again, Banquo’s buried; he cannot come out on’s grave.† And then; â€Å"To bed, to bed; theres a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come, come, give me your hand; what’s done cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed.† And then she leaves. Her last few words are the words she told Macbeth when he was so unsure of himself and was upset at what they had done. When she repeats them at this point, it is almost as if she is reassuring herself as she speaks, rather than just going over it, which is interesting. It is obvious that now that it has finally hit Lady Macbeth the extent of what has been happening. It has finally occurred to her also, how much she has lost control. And this is literally killing her. The Doctor and Gentlewoman do not want to comment on what they have heard, for fear of what has been said. The scene ends with the Doctor being bid goodnight by the gentlewoman, as he goes to find Macbeth and tell him of his diagnosis. When Macbeth, 2 scenes later, is told that Lady Macbeth is irreparably unwell, he simply dismisses medicine and even suggestively dismisses the Doctor himself, while asking for his armour. He is only now thinking of himself. That is clear. He has no feelings of care or love for his once doted upon wife and instead can only think of himself and what is going on around him in regards to the attack. In Act5, scene 5, Macbeth is told of Lady Macbeth’s inevitable death. If at any point much earlier in their relationship Macbeth had been given such news, he would undoubtedly have been distraught. It would have been of great loss to him. But here, not so. Instead, he selfishly twists the news into some sort of extra ‘problem’ or ‘hassle’ to him. He sees it as another bad thing that has happened in his life. He shows no sadness, and instead is filled with feelings of resentment that it should just be yet another downfall in his life. This shows just how bad their relationship has got. It has got to the point where Macbeth is literally only looking out for one person, and one person only- himself. He has no further need for a wife, and so feels no grief at her death, and instead reflects on life’s futility; â€Å"Out, out, brief candle, Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury. Signifying nothing.† As we have followed Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s relationship, various changes have occurred, which in turn have all ricocheted down the line towards Lady Macbeths death, and then eventually Macbeths own death. Macbeth took first steps towards less dependence when he went and killed the guards. This was not an apparent part of Lady Macbeths plan, and this unsettled her. But still she took charge of the situation by fainting, to draw away attention from his unintended actions. Then, he took further steps by arranging Banquo and Fleance to be murdered, and then Macduff’s family. Most importantly in it all, Macbeth did not tell Lady Macbeth of his actions. Instead he teased her with the notion of his plots and plans, leaving her ponder. He most probably enjoyed this mockery of his wife, as it was a large statement in their relationship, which once had been based on his dependence. He continues after all this to keep breaking away from her. He stops telling her his thoughts and plans entirely, and in accordance to this, Lady Macbeth loses her somewhat vital status, which is essentially what she thrived on, and how was the only way to keep their relationship going in the only way she knew how. So inexorably she gets to a point when she is only left to her own thoughts which she has in the past shied away from through putting all her efforts into her husband and his welfare. Off-stage, she dies, although it is never made clear how. We are left to assume that as foreseen by the doctor she died in her bed of such a burdened heart. Alternatively she may have taken her own life, or â€Å"fallen on roman daggers†, as it described as earlier in the play. As described earlier Macbeth takes this to his own heart as another ‘fault’ in his own life, and shortly after this point is justifiably murdered himself, by Macduff, whose family Macbeth earlier killed. Earlier in the play, Lady Macbeth sums up the futility of their actions and almost a premonition of what lay ahead was summed up when she said; â€Å"Nought’s had, all’s spent Where our desire is got without content. ‘Tis safer to be that which we destroy Than by destruction dwell in doubtful joy.†

Evolution of the Clock

Evolution of the Clock Introduction A clock is perhaps one of the oldest human developments in engineering. The name clock is coined from two Latin sounds- clocca and clagan, which denote a bell. In the early ages, a silent piece for alerting people on time was known as a timepiece (Itano Norman, 1999, p.56). In the modern usage, a clock refers to any instrument that can be deployed to measure coupled with displaying time.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Evolution of the Clock specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Watches are version of clocks, which can be carried by an individual. Since time immemorial of the evolution of clock, the main purpose, irrespective of accuracy and preciseness of a clock version, is to determine time in lesser units relative to the accepted units of time such as a â€Å"calendar day, a lunar month, and or a year† (Itano Norman, 1999, p.56). Over the process of evolution in the engineering of a clock, sever al mechanisms have been invented and deployed in the construction of an actual clock, which has often been used in cities and within people’s dwellings since the middle ages. Indeed, â€Å"devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia culminating into the modern version of clocks† (Jones, 2004, p.67). These modern versions of clocks are mainly mechanical clocks having either analogue or digital display formats. One of the earliest clocks was the sundials whose operation relied on the natural phenomena of different sizes of shadows cast on an object as times progress in a day. New engineering discoveries led to the emergence of new versions of clocks such as water clocks, candle clocks, pendulum clocks, incense clocks, and later clocks with escapements and gears followed by the most accurate clocks – atomic clocks. The purpose of this paper is to scrutinize the historic evolution of a clock. The theoretical approaches deployed in the paper are from engineering paradigms. In this light, the paper tracks changes in the operation mechanisms of the clock in the quest to provide theoretical records of evolution of engineering. How the Clock developed over Early Years (1-1500 AD) in terms of Engineering Sundial Clocks Sundial clocks were deployed to measure times through a shadow cast on a cylindrical stone. This clock was widely used during ancient times since it would measure time with high degrees of accuracy. However, the time measured by the instruments was merely the solar time.Advertising Looking for report on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The sundials were deployed to scrutinize the operation of the clocks until early in the recent times. Engineering designs deserve to be reliable over a wide range of variables. This requirement posed major challenges to the development of a more reliable clock sun was required to shine si nce for its operation. Consequently, the clock could not function at night or during cloudy weather conditions. Seasons change. Hence, recalibration of the clock was necessary whenever such changes occurred. These limitations made provisions for the need to develop other techniques of times measuring in a more reliable manner. Such a technique was the development of candle clock. Candle Clocks There exists a historic timeline gap for when the candle clocks were discovered and or used first. Nevertheless, they were first mentioned in You Jinful poem written in Chinese language in 520. With regard to the poet, a calibrated candle was deployed to help people determine the time at night. A corresponding class of â€Å"candles were later to be used in Japan until early 10th century† (Itano Norman, 1999). The most famous candle clock is related to King Alfred the great. From an engineering perspective, the clock was made from six candles, which were composed of 72 pennyweights der ived from wax. Each candle was 12 inches long calibrated at an interval of 1 inch. Another important requirement for candles used to make the clock was that they were all required to be of uniform thickness. The candles were consumed for close to four hours with each mark representing a 20-minute time erasure. One of the challenges of the clock was that the candles could be extinguished once they were lit hence impairing the performance of the clock. However, this issue was later to be less of a challenge since â€Å"the candles were placed in wooden framed glass, to prevent the flame from extinguishing† (Itano Norman, 1999, 41). As time progressed, the design of the candle clocks became even more sophisticated. In 1206, Al-Jazari’s work had one of the exceptionally complicated candle timers. With regard to Lankford and Taylor (1999), one of his candle clocks â€Å"included a dial to display the time and, for the first time, employed a bayonet fitting, a fastening me chanism still used in the modern times† (p.131). The rate of burning of the candle used for making the clock needed to have a rate of a known burning. A wick was fitted inside a hole passing through the candles’ center. An indentation was also provided to aid in the collection of the wax melted out as a strategy to help in the prevention of likelihoods of interference with the rates of burning of the candle.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Evolution of the Clock specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Lankford and Taylor (1999) further add that the candle clock described by Al-Jazari had â€Å"the bottom of the candle rested in a shallow dish that had a ring on its side connected through pulleys to a counterweight† (p.132). As the candle progressed to glow, it was pressed up by the load at a steady pace. As Rossum (1996) reveals, â€Å"the automata were operated from the dish at the bottom of the cand le† (p.65). In fact, in the early ages, no other candle clock was discovered having this intensity of sophistication. The only variation was the oil lamp clocks. The oil-lamp clocks were made up of a reservoir to hold the oil. The oil was mainly derived from the whale. It was the most appropriate since it burnt cleanly and evenly. The tank was then calibrated so that, as the its oil level fell, it was possible to have an approximate quantity of the time that had elapsed. Clocks made this way presented major challenges because resetting was necessary whenever the candles were totally consumed or the oil-lamp became empty. Incense Clocks Incense clocks were a major achievement in the development of clock since incense clocks were easily adaptable for interior application partly because the gadgets produced light in a constant manner and without fire unlike the candle timers. This condition made them more reliable since they were more accurate than the candle clocks. Although the use of incense candles has been identified by historians in Japan, there are speculations that the first incense clock could have been discovered in India. In the 6th century, the clocks had paved their way into China. Many variations of these gadgets were used with the most common ones being the â€Å"incense seal and incense stick† (Lankford Taylor, 1999, p.49). Although the incense wooden timer was principally made up of a marked incense wood, others were sophisticated by adding loads by means of strings at the wooden pieces. As the incense burnt out, these weights fell on a gong, which produced a sound while hit to indicate the amount of time that had elapsed. In addition, â€Å"some incense clocks were held in elegant trays†¦open-bottomed trays were also used, to allow the weights to be used together with the decorative tray† (Lankford Taylor, 1999, p.50). An alternative way of alerting people that a certain amount of time had elapsed was the deployment of incense sticks with different fragrance. Incense wooden pieces were either straight or spiraled depending on the amount of time each was anticipated to last with the spiral one taking more time. The spiraled incense stick clocks were mainly suspended from ceilings in houses and or religious places.Advertising Looking for report on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Incense seal clocks had similar application to the incense stick clocks. The only exemption was that these types of incense clocks were principally meant for religious functions (Rossum, 1996). The clocks were also significantly common in social gatherings. They were also highly associated with Chinese intellectuals and scholars. Essentially, a seal was made up of â€Å"a wooden or stone disk with one or more grooves attached to it and incense placed in itâ€Å" (Rossum, 1996, p.148). Although incense clocks had garnered many customers in China, they were also made in Japan though not as many as in China. In the effort to alert people that a certain length of time had elapsed, resins and various types of aromatic sticks and or incenses with a variety of smells were securely placed in the powdered lines of the incense seal clock. For instance, the earliest seal clocks were constructed from stone or wood. The Chinese people introduced metallic disks for use in making the clock. This invention occurred during the Song dynasty. This evolution provided an opportunity for artisans charged with the roles of making seal clocks an opportunity not only to make aesthetic seals but also larger ones. The use of metallic disks also permitted the designers to incorporate grooves and paths that varied to give a room for variations in the length of days in a year. Water Clocks Water clocks, alternatively called clepsydrae, coupled with the sundials are amongst the oldest clocks in the history of humankind. Due to their antiquity, Jones (2004) argues, â€Å"where and when they first existed are not known and perhaps unknowable† (p.33). However, people believe that some types of water clocks had been used in Babylon and Egypt in the 16th century. These versions were mainly bowl-shaped outflow water clocks. It is also important to note that some other parts of the world including China and India had some evidence of having used water clocks. However, the precise date whe n this case occurred remains a nightmare because there have been arguments around this topic with some authors claiming that water clocks were used in China and India in 4000 BC (Jones, 2004). Amid the historical debate around the subject of when water clocks first appeared in human civilizations of engineering endeavors, a substantive contentment among historians holds that, from 27 AD to 500 AD, Roman astronomers coupled with horologists engaged in the development of elaborate water clocks that were mechanized. In the words of Rossum (1996), the main aim of engineering complicated water clocks was â€Å"to regulate the flow at providing fancier displays of the passage of time† (p.77). Astrological systems of the earth were even demonstrated by some types of water watch machines. Muslims experts invented the most sophisticated water clocks. In particular, a design that was more fascinating was the elephant clock made by Al-Jazari in the middle ages. â€Å"The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year† (Rossum, 1996, p.57).To realize this endeavor, the clock design had two tanks. To serve their work well, as Rossum (1996, p.57) points out, â€Å"The bottom tank was linked to flow the control regulator while the top tank was linked to the mechanisms that indicated time†. At sunrise, a faucet released a stream to run into the underneath reservoir under the check of a hang controller that was meant to ensure that a steady weight was assured at the receiving reservoir. How the Clock Developed after 15th Century to the Mechanical Clocks The design approaches and engineering technology levels in the early ages to Middle Ages did not give a room for designers to construct clocks with the hour, minute, and second means of measuring time. They only measured time in terms of hours. In fact, as Landes (2000, p. 43) reveals, â€Å"a cl ock that had minute dials first appeared in 1475 with clocks having both minutes and second dial appearing by 15th century in Germany†. However, developments in the clock were still limited until when the massive mechanisms of improving accuracy of the clocks were developed. The mechanisms included the pendulum system and spiral springs. One of the historic events in the use of accurate clocks via both minutes and seconds dial was realized when Tycho Brahe (an astronomer) used such a clock to observe various stellar positions in the 16th century. Pendulum Clocks The development of mechanical clocks leads to miniaturization of the clocks. By the end of the 15th century, clocks such as the Al-Jazari elephant clock were considered as past tense so that smaller clocks could be made for domestic applications coupled with usages as personal watches by16th century. This development was preceded by discoveries made by Polymath Galileo, an Italian Engineer. He revealed that the oscilla tions of a pendulum could indeed be deployed to operate and or control a timer. However, he never constructed a clock based on the principles of pendulum. Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist, would design a clock based on the concepts of pendulum investigated by the Polymath Galileo in 1656. Many versions of clocks based on the pendulum principles were later designed. The earliest designs produced errors in time measurement in the ranges of less than a minute within a day. The most accurate ones had errors of less than 10 seconds within a day. This realization was perhaps the best accuracy levels in time measurement during the 16th century. In the 17th and 18th century, clock developments were mainly based on the precision and improved accuracy requirements. In this regard, Jesuits were incredibly instrumental. To emphasize on this point, Landes (2000) asserts, â€Å"in measuring an accurate one-second pendulum, for example, the Italian astronomer Father Giovanni Battista persuade d nine fellow Jesuits to count nearly 87,000 oscillations in a single day† (p.97). Consequently, they played significant roles in the development of the pendulum clock since they participated in testing and spreading engineering ideas of time. Modern clocks such as long case clock have their origin anchored in the invention of engineering discoveries such as anchor escapement. This clock operation mechanism was discovered in the 1670s. Before the discovery of the mechanism, pendulum clocks principally depended on the verge escapement mechanism for their operations. Verge escapement mechanisms needed an extremely large pendulum dangle in the range of 100 degrees. The anchor mechanisms served to reduce this swing to values of about four to six degrees. This reduction not only gave pendulum clock makers an opportunity to make clocks having longer pendulums but also clocks with slowed beats. The overall effect was the reduction of the amount of power required to operate the clock following the reduction in friction. Apart from the reduction of wear in this generation of pendulum clocks, they also emerged as more accurate in comparison to those, which predeceased them. These developments paved way for the creation of businesses, which principally aimed at manufacturing mechanical of clocks. Now, it is crucial to consider a discussion of clock makers before proceeding to discussion of evolution of other types of mechanical clocks. Clock Makers and Evolution of Mechanical Watches and Clocks Locksmith and jewelries were the first professional clock makers in the history of clock making. With regard to American Society of Mechanical Engineers, as years progressed, the craft and science (engineering) of clock making advanced from pure custom to mass production (2002, p.31). In Paris, France, coupled with Blois were the main centers for making clocks for mass consumptions. Julien Le Roy and Versailles led the market in the design and production of ornamental and ca se-designed clocks. As Lankford and Taylor (1999) posit, â€Å"Le Roy belonged to the fifth generation of a family of clockmakers, and was described by his contemporaries as the most skillful clockmaker in France, possibly in Europe† (p.129). Le Roy also invented a repeating mechanism, which made it possible to improve the accuracy and precision of the clock to higher levels than those recorded for the pendulum clock. The clocks and watches that were designed by Le Roy also had a face that could be opened up to view the engineering behind the clock. The clock maker also supervised the process of making about 3,500 watches. Consequently, an intense scientific competition emerged with many researchers focusing on looking for other alternative ways of measuring time in ways that are more accurate. In 1794, following the French revolution, the government of France mandated brief production of decimal clocks. These clocks had a day divided into 10 hours with each hour having 100 m inutes. Through the effort of engineering modifications of Pierre Simon Laplace, pocket watch was modified into decimal form. Although this technology was extended to many other watches apart from the Pierre Simon Laplace’s until 1801, conversion of all watches within France into a decimal form was impossible due to the high costs associated with the process. The decimal system was also not viable since it only served the astronomers implying that the system was not useful to the ordinary citizens. Thus, it was not considered any further in the early 1800s. In the case of Germany, Augsburg and Nuremberg were there main clock makers. However, Black Forest specialized in the production of Cuckoo clock, which was wooden. In the 17th and 18th century, the English people dominated the watch making industry. Indeed, at the dawn of the 19th century, William Paley deployed the equivalence of a watch making to argue that all things are planned meaning that they have their planners and hence the theoretical reasoning behind the discipline of Engineering. Looking at the design of watches from this paradigm, there emerged research and subsequent construction of more accurate watches and clocks such as chronometers, atomic clocks, quartz oscillators, and wrist watches among others. Some of these clocks are discussed below. Patek Philipe invented the wristwatch in 1868. His watch was mainly purposed to serve as a woman’s bracelet. At the dawn of the 20th century, Alberto Santos-Dumont requested his acquaintance who was in the clock making business to make for him a gadget (clock) that could assist him in times of flights since a pocket watch was not expedient. In response to this request, Louis created the first man’s wristwatch. Later, military workforce were engaged in mass making of clocks for airplane controllers coupled with infantry. Such watches got immense popularity during the First World War though they remained a reserve for the middle class people. During World War II, A-11 wristwatch became common among the US air force men. In Engineering perspective, the watch met Ego-metrics (the degree to which an engineering creation is usable by the targeted end user based on requirements for readability and usability) since it was calibrated with clear white numbers. Another invention that shaped the clock evolution process was the quartz oscillators. These types of gadgets were highly inspired by the inventions of nano biosensor characteristics of materials. In 1932, these watches evolved to the levels of being able to gauge little differences in time due to the revolution of the earth. Indeed, as Lankford and Taylor (1999, p. 129) point , â€Å"the NIST (national bureau of standards) used time standards based on the quartz clock as from 1929 to 1960†. With the development of atomic clocks, which were more accurate than quartz clock, the organization shifted its time standards from being based on the quartz clock to ato mic clocks. Atomic watches remain the most precise gadgets ever to be made. Their accuracy levels are in the range of a few seconds over a period of several thousand years. The first watch of this type was built in 1949. Conclusion Sundial and water clocks were the earliest clocks to be made. On the other extreme, the quartz watch and the atomic clocks form the most recent discoveries. As the paper unveiled, during the processes of evolution from the most primitive types of watches and clocks to the most modern ones, the main concern of this expert was to look for mechanisms of enhancing the accuracy and preciseness of the clocks and watches. This process occurred alongside improvements of the clock to serve the purpose of measuring times and esthetic purposes. Reference List American Society of Mechanical Engineers. (2002). Proceedings of the 2002 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences. London: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Itano, W., Norman, F. (1999). Accurate Measurement of Time. Scientific American, 269 (1), 56–65. Jones, T. (2004). Splitting the Second: The Story of Atomic Timekeeping. Bristol, UK: Institute of Physics Publishing. Landes, D. (2000). Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Lankford, J., Taylor, F. (1999). Time and timekeeping instruments. History of  astronomy, 34(3), 127-158. Rossum, G. (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.